Notes By-
Cleared UPSC 2017 with AIR-113 in his first attempt.
(B.Tech- IIT Hyderabad).
Medieval India
- 600 AD : Islam founded in Mecca
- 1000 AD : The repeated invasion of India by Muslim rulers was started by Md Ghazni 1000 AD : 17 raids overall, came and raided plundered Indian Temples, shattered the defence of Rajput kingdoms in West (who were busy fighting among themselves & didnot put up unified defence) , this paved way for invasions by Turks & Afghans
- Al-Barauni wrote Kitab-i-Hind : account of India, stayed in Ghazni court : noted 4 categories in Social Structure was not unique to India , but disliked notion of pollution in lower strata
- Minhaj-us-Siraj : Tabaqat-i-Nasari : gen history of Muslim Dynasties in India till 1260
- 1192 / 1200 AD : Md Ghori fought 2nd Battle of Tarain 1200 AD against confederacy of Rajput kings, Prithviraj Chauhan —> and won ;
- Estd of Turkish Rule in India had started , he left Qutub-ud-in Aibak to consolidate empire
- Why did the Hindu Kingdoms fail ?
- Lack of unity among NW Rajput+ exhausting each other in fractricidal war, still using elephants while they used cavalry, Turkish army more modern & capable + Religious Zeal & desire greater + Rajputs were always on defensive : weak position + in Hindu Society (only Kshatriyas fought, while in Muslim anybody cd fight)
—> Delhi Sultanate : 1200 AD – 1500 AD ~ 5 Dynasties : Slave , Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, Lodhi
- Slave Dynasty : Mamluk / Ilbark Dynasty
- Qutub-ud-din Aibak : Lakh Baksh (giver of lakhs, liberal donor) was slave of Md Ghori , founder of Slave & Delhi Sultanate, took on title of “Sutlan”
- Iltutmish : intro silver tanka, Arabic coinage in India, predecessor of modern 1 Rupee coin today
- created “The Forty” : 40 Military Leaders : new class of ruling elite
- also refused shelter to person running from Genghis Khan, leader of Mongols , largest contiguous empire ever who had reached upto Beas
- completed Qutub-Minar, with projected balconies
- daughter Raziya as successor, started hereditary succession in Delhi Sultanate
- Raziya : only female ruler of Delhi Sultnate;
- Balban : det to break power of the Forty = Turkish Nobles in court + Strenghtened Monarcy over Turkish Nobles
- Nauroz : Persian festival to impress 40 Nobles & people with his power
- Theory of Kingship
- Diwan-i-ariz : separate Military Dept
- Roads became safe for travel
- Khalji Dynasty : Seljuk Dynasty : the Reforms guy
- Stop rebellion of The 40 : confiscated their lands + stopped sale of liquor, partying, intermarriage b/w nobles, efficient spy-system
- Army reforms : started paying army in cash
- for max efficiency of Army : Army review time to time + started Dagh : Branding of horses & Huliya : descriptive list of soldiers
- Mkt Reforms : Diwan-i-Riyasat : Mkt dept officer Naib-i-Riyasat
- Price regulation = prices fixed even during famine, every merchant registered under Mkt dept
- Munhiyas & slaves(spies to check prices in Mkts)
- Mkt divided in 4 separate mkts : grains , cloths & non-grain food, horses & cattle , misc
- supply of grain ensured by holding stocks in Govt store-houses
- Price regulation = prices fixed even during famine, every merchant registered under Mkt dept
- Land Reforms : Land was measured for 1st time & big land owners had to pay land taxes + paid army in cash
- 3 categories of Land
- Iqta Land : Land given to Officials as payments instead of salaries
- Khalisa Land : Land directly under Sultan & NOT Village councils ; revenues collected used to decorate royal household
- Inam Land : Land given to religious leaders
- Visti : “bonded labour”
- Khalji defeated Mongol ruler : Abdullah ! Bakchod ! forced to raise large army cos of it : stabilised Delhi Sultanate empire
- Rani Padmini : jauhar #SanjayLeelaBhansali
- Amir Khusrao : Sabaq-i-Hind : new style of Persian Poetry ; Qawwali , invention of sitar ; new ragas like ghora & sanam , musical instruments : sarangi rabab
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- Alai Darwaza as gate in Qutub minar
- Tughlaq Dynasty : the Expt guy
- Made Devgiri his 2nd Capital to better control South : but 1500 km ki journey mein kaafi royal household ki maut ho gayi hai
- Token Currency : Copper coins to replace Silver Coins : due to shortage of Silver th. out world he gave copper same value as Silver, par people started forging copper coins themselves, leading to inflation
- Taxation in Doab area b/w Yamuna & Ganga
- Md Tughlaq 1st person to focus on Agro : Agro Reforms in Doab : gave takkavi loans to farmers for IRRIGATION ,cultivation, since he realised promotion of Agro is soln to poverty ; cultivate wheat > barley + horticulture too !
- sep dept of Agro : Diwan-i-Kohi
- Diwan-i-Khairat : care house for orphans & widows by Feroze Tughlaq
- Feroz Shah Kotla : By Feroze Shah Tughlaq
- Feroze Shah Tughlaq (precursor to Aurangzeb-baji : listened to Ulemas, jiziya) : 1st Sultan to apply Irrigation Tax + Iqtas made hereditary during his reign
- Barani : on Tughlaq ; Tarikh-i-Firoze Shahi
- Ragdarpan translated to Persian during Firoze Tughlaq
- Man Katuhal : Raja Man Singh of Gwalior
- “Battar” style of construction intro : “sloping walls” to increase strength
- Sayyids :
- Lodi : were Afghans while rest were Turks
- “Double Dome”
- Daulat Khan Lodi was frust with arrogant Ibraham Lodi ,so invited Babur to invade India, killed Ibrahim Lodi in 1st Battle of Panipat 1526
- Adm :
- Naib : Cabinet Sec : exercised all powers of Sultan & general control over all depts
- Wazir : Head of Finance Dept : Diwan-i-Wizarat
- Military Dept : Diwan-i-Ariz
- Religious Dept : Diwan-i-Rasalat headed by Qazi
- Communication/Correspondence Dept : Diwan-i-Insha
- Agro Dept : Diwan-i-Kohi
- Mkt dept officer Naib-i-Riyasat : Diwan-i-Riyasat :
- care house for orphans & widows by Feroze Tughlaq : Diwan-i-Khairat :
- Province District Village : Iqtas Shiqs Paraganas Village = Muqtis (L&O), Shiqaddar, Amil, Muqaddam/Chaudhari (Village accountant : patwari)
- Sarai : ringed cities / rest houses on highways for travellers
- Sericulture , Paper industry started during Delhi Sultanate
—> Bhakti Movt 1000 AD -1500 AD
- Bhakti Movt of S.India : Vaishnavites & Shaivites spread Bhakti Movt in South , from where it spread to N.Inda
- Cause for rise of bhakti : Monopolistic control of Brahmins , highly complicated & costly Rituals (people were unable to access Religion) , they used Sanskrit while people cd understand only local languages
- Features : Single Minded Devotion & Love to God : only way to achieve salvation , Rituals bhaad me jaye, Monotheism , oneness of all religions
- Result of Bhakti :
- Development of local languages like Marathi Gujrati Bengali, since Bhakti saints preached in local langs NOT Sanskrit
- Raised Lower classes eg Shudra & Women to higher level since Bhakti cd be practiced by anyone
- Gave people are more Simple & universally Accessible Religion viz did not discriminate
- 2 Saints of Advaita Philosophy : Brahma (God) & Soul are one, not diff
- Sankaracharya : Nirguna-brahma : God is w/o attributes
- Ramanuja : VAISHNAVITE, NAVGRANTHs to the world , Vishisht-advaita (Qualified Oneness ! ): Sagun-brahma : God is with attributes ie God soul matter all is real & not illusionary
- Basavan Comt : contemporary of Ramanuja : Shaivate-Bhakti Movt, Good Governance, Social refomer
- founder of Lingayat Sect (VeerShaivism) ; estd “Kalyan Raj” = Welfare State
- Bhakti Movt in Kannada : Madhav ( Dvaita Philosphy )
- Bhakti Movt in Telangana Region : Nimbark & Vallabhacharya
- Bhakti Movt in Bengal : Chaitanya
- Bhakti Movt in Maharashtra : Gnanadeva, Namdeva, Ekanth , Tukaram
- Gnanadev founder of Bhakti Movt in Mahar + Commentary on Bhagwad Gita : Gnaneswari
- Tukaram was contemporary of Shivaji, & laid foundation of Marathi Nationalism
- Ramanuja —> Ramananda —> kabir —> Guru Nanak
- Kabir : stressed on oneness of H&M
- Guru Nanak : founded Sikhism in 1500 AD :
—> Sufism : Liberal Reform Movt w/i Islam ; founded by Khwaya Md Chisti
- Love & Devotion as means to God + service to people + self-discipline : pre-req to perceiving God around u + u need guidance of Guru for spiritual
- Orthodox Muslim stressed Outer Conduct & Blind observance of Rituals (eg Purdah) while Sufism stressed inner Purity & Love& Devotion
- Ziyarat : pilgrimage site
- Malfuzat, Tazkirs, Maktubat : literary texts of Sufi
- Imperial Cholas : 800 – 1200 AD
- Hoysala : 1200 -1300 AD
- Vijayanagar Empire 1300 AD Ibn Batuta : Rihla ; Moroccan traveller during Vijaynagar Empire (Hampi) + when Md Tughlaq was Sultan Delhi
—> Mughals (1500-1800)
- 1st Battle of Panipat 1526 : Ibrahim Lodi vs Babur
- Babur — >Humayun —> || Sun interrungum (Sher Shah Suri) || —> Humayun —> Jahangir —> Shah Jahan —> Aurangzeb
- Sher Shah Suri : LR , Land Survey done very nicely (good middle bad) , 1/3 revenue
- Silver coins : Dams
- built new city near yamuna bank near delhi
- Jayasi wrote Padmavati during Sher Shah’s reign
- 2nd Battle of Panipat 1556 : Akbar vs Hemu (hindu) ; Akbar lucky cos arrow pierced Hemu’s eye although he was winning battle
- Akbar, moved by Jodha , abolished Jiziya : special Tax made to pay by Hindus
- Din-i-Ilahi : new religion founded by Akbar : one god, took good points of all religion, basis was rational, no dogma, tried to bridge gap b/w H&M
- Ibadat Khana : House of Worship at Fatehpur Sikri : invited scholars from all religions
- Disliked Ulemas (muslim religious leaders) , issued infallibility decree , asserting his religious powers
- Akbar intro Mansabdari system : ranking system for soldiers to officials
- Zat : personal status ki ranking
- Sawar : indicated num of cavalryman person reqd to maintain
- LR system of Akbar : Zabti / Bandobast system , further improved by Raja Todar Mal known as Dahsala system
- Revenue fixed on basis Avg yield of land of past 10 yrs
- Land div into 4 categ : Polaj Parauti Chachar banjar : cultivated once in 1 2 3 5 yrs
- Akbar’s Relgious Policy : Religious tolerance & matrix-monial alliance building with Rajputs, Sikhs, Marathas + gave them high posts in court & army : eg Raja Man Sigh, Raja Todar Mal —> Akbar enjoyed Service of best warriors in country + Rajputs enjoyed peace among themselves + occupied top positions in the Mughal Adm
- Mughal power declines cos of Aurangzeb’ Religious Policy (reversed Akbar’s Policy of + vastness of empire became unweilding + neglected naval development vis-a-vis British + repeated incursion by Ahmad Shah Abdali & NAdir Shah
- Food in Mughal : Rice Millets Pulses was staple food, ghee oil was cheap, Milk was plenty cos all had cattle
- But Sugar & Salt was costly
- Agro in Mughal : we grew wheat rice gram pulses + Commercial crops : cotton indigo sugarcane oilseed
- Crops we got in 17th & 18th century : Tobacco, Maize (sutta / bhutta) , Red Chilli , Potato
- But no new Agro technique was intro during Mughals
- We exported Rice & Sugar, Silk , Kashmiri Shawls, Gold & Silver ???
- Imported : Copper Tin War horses, Luxury items like ivory
- Pietra Dura : used in Taj Mahal : “semi precious stones”
- Lapis Lazuli : Blue Stone
- Hamznama : Jahangir ka 1200 painting ka collection
—> Marathas :
- Kathi : Measuring rod for measuring land during Marathas
- Land div into 3 : Paddy, Garden land, hills
- Ashtapradhan : 8 Council of Ministers viz assisted Shivaji
- Waqenawis : Intell, Amatya : a/c general , Sumanta : Master of Ceremonies , NOT religion , Sachiv ; Correspondence (Sachivalaya Secretariat)
- Chauth : Tax viz Marathas collected from side-by villages , viz were under Mughal rule & Marathas undertook resp to protect Mughal rule from internal & External disturbances
- So when Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India : 3RD BATTLE OF PANIPAT 1761 : Abdali vs Marathas.
- Iltutmish & Jalaluddin Khalji stopped Mongol
Deve in Philosphy :
- Ancient thinkers advocated person should strive for attainment for 4 goals :
- Regulation of Social order / Dharma = Dharmashastra
- Eco resources / arth = Arthashastra
- Physical pleasures / kama = Kamasutra
- Salvation / Moksha = deliverance from cycle of birth & death
- Six Schools of Philosohpy :
- Samkhya : Dwait-vaat —> soul & nature is diff
- Presence of divine agency not essential to creation of world
- World owes creation / evolution more to nature than to God : rational & scientific view
- Nature & Spiritual element tog created world
- At outset Samkhya phi : materialistic but later tended to become spiritualistic
- Person can attain salvation th acquisition of real knowledge & misery can be ended forever
- Knowledge can be acd th. perception, inference & hearing —> method char of scientific system of enquiry
- Yoga :
- Person can attain salvation th meditation & physical application ( asanas )
- Practice of control over pleasure, senses & bodily organ central to this system —> mind gets diverted from worldly matters & achieves conc
- Knowledge of physiology & anatomy in ancient times + indicate tendency to run away from worldly difficulties
- Nyaya :
- School of analysis —> deve as sys of logic + veracity of statement tested th inference, hearing, & analogy + stress on use of logic
- Salvation can be attained th. acquisition of knowledge
- Vaisheshika :
- Imp to discussion of material elements / dravya
- Draw lines b/w particularities & their aggregate —> earth,water, fire, air, ether combined give rise to new objects
- Propounded atom theory believing all material obj made of atoms —> marked beginning of physics in India
- But sc view diluted by belief in God & spiritualism , this school put its faith in both heaven & salvation
- Mimamsa : Scientific justification for Rituals from Brahmanas
- Reasoning to provide justi for various Vedic rituals + attainment of salvation made dep on their performance
- Acc to it : Vedas contain eternal truth
- Principal aim : acquire heaven & salvation ; person will enjoy heaven a.l.a. accumulated virtue lasts ; when virtue exhausts will return to earth but if acquires salvation, will be completely free from cycle fo birth & death
- Th. it Brahmanas sought to maintain ritual authority & preserve social hierarchy based on Brahmanism
- Vedanta : Advait-vaat —> Brahma & Soul stick together
- Brahmasutra : of Badarayana formed basic text, meaning “end of Veda”
- Later 2 commentaries on it by :
- Shankaracharya —> Brahma to be w/o attributes + Knowledge as chief means of salvation
- Ramanuja —> Brahma had attributes + Devotion / loving faith as means to salvation
- Vedanta Phi traced to earlier Upanishads
- Acc to it : brahma is reality, everything else is unreal ; self / soul / atma coincides with brahma
- if person acquires knowledge of self = acquires knowledge of brahma = attains salvation
- brahma & atma = indestructible , both promote idea of stability / indestructibility
- Theory of karma linked to Vedanta philosphy —> in present birth person bears consequences of actions in previous birth
- Belief in rebirth = people suffer not cos of worldly causes but cos of causes they neither know / nor control
- Charvaka :
- Main Materialistic philosophy (Samkhya & Vaisheshika) —> denies working of divine & supernatual, makes man centre of all activities
- a.k.a. Lokayata i.e. ideas derived from commo people —> underlined imp of intimate contact with world & lack of belief in other world
- Opposed to quest for spiritual salvation ; denied existence of any divine / supernatural agency
- Accepted reality of only things experienced by human senses / organs —> implied clear lack of faith in existence of Brahma & God
- Acc to it, brahmanas manufac rituals in order to acquire gifts
- Samkhya : Dwait-vaat —> soul & nature is diff
- By 500 AD Materialistic phi overshadowed by Idealistic phi ( attri worldly phenomenon to supernatural forces + rituals / spiritualism as path to salvation)
- View hindered progress of sc. enquiry & rational thinking ; even enlightened found diff to q priveleges of priests / warriors
- Steeped in idealistic & salvation schools, people resigned themselves to inequities of varna-based social system + strong aithority of St
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Samkhya
Vedanta
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Yoga
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Nyaya
Vaisheshika
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Mimasa
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Charvaka
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Nastik Philosophy : Rejected Vedas : J&B, Lokayata (Charvaka), Ajivika Sect
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Martial Dances :
- THANG TA Martial Dance from MANIPUR (Rang Ma Bamboo dance : Nagaland) while Thang Ka Painting : Sikkim
- UNESCO Intangebile Heritage list :
- Yoga (latest addition) ; Chhau dance (Bengal Martial) , Kalbelia (snake dance of Rajasthan) , Sankirtana (dance of Manipur), Metal Punjabi
- Ramlila, Buddhist Chanting, Vedic Chanting, NOT Ayurveda
- South India : Koodiyettam (kootreya, Kerala), Mudiyetta
- Nauroz : Persian New year, Ramman
- UNESCO Tangible Cultural Heritage List : ASI : Ajanta Ellora Nalanda Sanchi
==>> Legacy in Sc. & Civilisation :
- Religion & Varna System :
- Bounty adv by nature + scarcity caused by it —> led them to think of religion & supernatural forces
- In course of time, varnas / social classes made hereditary by law & religion —> to ensure Vaishyas prod & paid taxes, Shudras served as labour for Brahmanas to act as priests & Khatriyas as rulers
- Div of labour + Specialisation of occu = certainly helped growth of society & economy intial stages
- Gradually each caste pitted against each other —> oppressed could not combine & rise against privileged order
- Need to carry out resp funcs so strongly ingrained in minds of various classes that wd not ordinarily think of deviating from their dharma
- Their belief lessened intensity & frequency of tensions & conflicts b/w those who actually prod & those who lived off
—>> Necessity to coerce lower orders was not very strong in ancient india ; —>> Brahmanical indoctrination vs Roman rulers’ whips
- Philosophical systems :
- Indian thinkers viewed world as illusion & deliberated deeply on relation b/w Soul & God
- Ancient India considered famous for contri to Philosophy & Spiritualism ; phi of no other country delved so deeply in above problem
- Nyaya sutra (4C AD) : mentions 4 proofs comprising perception, inference, comparison & testimony
- With decline in Trade, handicrafts, & urbanism, Materialistic retreated & Idealist system of phi came forward
- Idealist taught world is an illusion ; People asked by Upanishads to abandon world & strive for knowledge
- W thinkers taken to Upanishads cos unable to solve problems created by modern tech
- Crafts & Tech :
- 1st great contri made by Harappan culture : (1) area > Egypt / Mesopotamia (2) largest baked bricks num (3) best town-planning
- Indians attained proficiency in several fields of prod
- Indian craftsmen : great expertise in dyeing / creating various colours ; e.g. Ajanta still intact
- Indians deve great expertise in art of making steel (200 BC) ; Indian steel exported to many countries + no other country could match steel swords
- Polity :
- Arthashastra : leaves no doubt Indians could run adm of large empire + tackle problems of complex society
- Cue Ashoka = policy of peace / non-aggression + other kings too practices religious tolerance & respect
- Besides Greece, India was only country to experiment with some form of democracy
- Science & Maths :
- In ancient times religion & science inextricably linked
- Astronomy :
- Made great strides cos Planets began to be regarded as Gods —> movts began to be closely observed
- Study essential cos of connection to changes in seasons & weather conditions —> imp for agro activities
- Sc of grammar & linguistics arose cos brahmanas stressed every Vedic prayer / mantra be recited with meticulous precision
- 1st result of scientific outlook of Indian = deve of Sanskrit grammar ; Ashtadhyayi by Panini
- In Maths, Ancient Indians made 3 distinct contri : (1) Notation system (2) Decimal system (3) Use of Zero
- Indian Notational system adopted by Arabs who spread it in W.World
- Indian 1st to use Decimal system (500 AD) : Chinese learnt it from Buddhist missionaries + W world borrowed it from Arabs
- Zero discovered by Indians 200 BC : Indi maths consi it sep numeral & used in arithmetic sums ; Arabs learnt from India & spread to Europe
- Brick constructions of Harappa : show substantial knowledge of measurement & geometry
- Apastamba prod practical geometry for contruction of altars (sacrifices) : describes acute, obtuse, _|_
- Aryabhatta formulated method for calc area of /__\ : origin of trigonometry
- Most renowned scholars of Astronomy :
- Aryabhatta :
- Calc position of planets in acc with Babylonian method + disc cause of solar / lunar eclipse + correctly speculated circum of earth
- Pointed out Sun is stationary & Earth rotates
- Suryasiddhanta : Astronomy by BrahmaGupta
- Aryabhatia : landmark in deve of mathematical + astronomical knowledge + distinct contri to Trigonometry
- On its basis, shapes & sizes of Plots involved in gift making + property partition measured & rent / tax assessed
- Measurements needed for erection of temples + palaces + other engg work
- Varahamihira :
- Panchsiddhanta : Astronomy
- Brihatsamhita : stated that moon rotates around earth & earth around sun
- Utilised several greek works to explain movt of planets
- His plant & animal classification enriched agro knowledge
- emphasized calendar sh be constantly updated to keep pace with change in seasons : Varahamihira was astronomer-cum-astrologer.
- Aryabhatta :
- Medicine :
- Ancient Indian physicians studied Anatomy , devised methods to diagnose diseases & prescribed medicines for cure
- Geography :
- Early times Indians obtained knowledge of navigation & constri to craft of shipbuilding
- However as imp political power had seat of power far away from coasts + faced no threat from sea —> ancient Indian princes paid no particular attention to navigation.
Provinces —— districts —— villages
Gupta : Bhukti , Vishya , Gopu
Rashtrakutas : Rashtrapati, Bhogapati, Vishyapati
Cholas : Mandalam , Nadu , Ur
Delhi Sultanate : Iqtas Shiqs Paraganas Village = Muqtis Shiqaddar Amil Muqaddam/Chaudhari (Village accountant : patwari)
Sangam Age (300BC – 300 AD)
- Megalith Burials : People known due to funerary structs ; graves encirced by large pieces of stone & buried with pottery & iron objects
—> had belief that dead would need these in next world - Tamizakham : Cultural & eco contacts b/w North & deep South
- Dakshinapath : route to south valued by northeners cos south supplied gold, pearls & precious stones
- States : Cholas (An. P), Pandyas (TN ), & Cheras (Kerala)
- Sangam Lit : Lit compiled in Tamil academics in early centuries of Christian era ; divided into 2 groups
- Narrative : Melkannakku , Eighteen Major Works
- Didactic : Kilkanakku , Eighteen Minor Works
- Tolkkapiyyam : deals with grammar & poetics
- Tirukkural : Philosophy & wise maxims
- Twin Tamil epics : Silappadikaram & Manimekalai
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Corpus of Sangam Lit (300 BC to 300 AD)
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- Art of writing doubtless known to Tamils before beginning of Christian era
- Culturally Dravidian elements seem to have dominated in 1st phase , but during 2nd phase : Aryanization & Brahmanisation
- AD 300 : Pallavas , Kadambas, Chalukyas
- Cholas :
- Shaivism & Vaishnavism both contd to fluorish
- Caste system widely prevelant during Chola —> 2 major divisions of caste : Valangai & Idangai
- Pos of women didnot improve —> Sati prevalent among Royalty
- Devdasi system in temples emerged during this period
==>> Gupta Empire ( 320 AD – 600 AD ) :
- Guptas rose on ruins of (foreign) Kushan empire
- Chandragupta 1 (319- ) —> Samudragupta (335 – ) —> Chandragupta 2 (380 – 412)
- Samudragupta (Napolean of India) : opposite of Ashoka —> delighted in violence & conquest
- Court poet Harishena wrote glowing accounts of military conquests of Samudragupta : Prayag Prashasti: one of most imp documents of Gupta empire as provides unique snapshot of Gupta era
- Places conquered by Samudragupta can be div into 5 :
- Princes of Ganga-Yamuna doab
- Rulers of E.Himalayas
- Forest kingdoms in Vindhya region
- 12 rulers of E.Deccan & S.India
- Shakas & Kushans
- Chandragupta 2 adopted title of Vikramaditya (first used by Ujjain ruler in 58 BC as mark of victory over Shaka Kshatrapas of W.India )
- his reign included Kalidasa , Amarasimha & visit by Fa-hsien (AD 399-414)
- His successors had to face invasion by Hunas from C.Asia + undermined by rise of feudatories who tended to declare themselves indep
- Gupta kings adopted pompous titles s.a. parameshvara, maharajadhiraja, paramabhattaraka
- They gave magnificent gifts to Brahmanas + land grants —> they expressed their gratitude by comparing king to diff gods
- Gupta did not require as many officials as Mauryas as much of adm managed by feudatories & beneficiaries
- Gupta st did not regulate eco activities on substantial scale
- Caste proliferated into numerous sub-castes as result of 2 factors :
- Large num of foreigners assimilated into Indian society —> each group considered a caste
- Absorption of many tribal people into brahmanical society th process of land grants —> Chiefs given respect but lower kinsmen given low caste
- Gupta people acquired more & more land —> more polygamous & property-minded —> in patriarchal setup, began to treat women as items of property s.t. women expected to follow men to other world —> 1st case of Sati in Gupta period in 510 AD
- Principal reason for subordination of women —> (1) complete dependance on men for their livelihood + (2) lack of proprietary rights
- Bhagvantism :
- Worship of Vishnu = minor god of Vedic times + rep Sun + fertility cult
- Later merged with Narayana god ; Orig Narayana was non-vedic tribal god called bhagavata
- Vishnu came to be id with legendary hero of Vishni tribe in W.India = Krishna-Vasudeva
- By 200 BC, 3 streams of gods & their worhsippers merged into —> Result : creation of Bhagavatism / Vaishnavism
- Bhagavantism marked by bhakti / ahimsa ; Bhakti = offer of loving devotion eg loyalty offered by tribe to chief
- Ahimsa / non-killing of animals suited agro society + keeping with old cult of life-giving fertility assoc with Vishnu
- Out of aversion to killing animals, some took to entirely veg diet
- Bhagvantism overshadowed Mahayana Buddhism by Gupta times
- preached doctrine of incarnation ; believed whenever social order faced crisis, Vishnu appeared in human form to save it & salvage dharma
- new religion suff liberal to attract foreigners ; appealed to artisans & merchants
- By 600 AD Vishnu became member of trinity of gods along with Shiva & Brahma
- ART :
- Gupta period = “Golden period” —> not true in eco field ; however Guptas possessed large quantity of gold & issued largest num of gold coins
- Samudragupta rep on coins playing lute | Chandragupta maintaining in his court nine luminaries
- Art largely inspired by religion ; Buddhism gave great impetus to art in Maurya & post times
—> creation of (1) Massive stone pillars (2) Hewing of beautiful caves (3) Raising of high stupas / relic towers - During Gupta, bful images of Buddha fashioned at Sarnath & Mathura , but finest specimen = Ajanta paintings
- depict various event in life of Gautama Buddha & previous Buddhas whose birth stories related in Jatakas
- As Guptas supported Brahmanism, images of Vishnu, Shiva & other Hindu gods fashioned for 1st time during this time
- Architecture : Bhitargaon in Kanpur, Bhitari in Ghazipur & Deogarh in Jhansi
- Buddhist univ at Nalanda set up in 5C
- Gupta period Literature :
- Gupta period remarkable for prod of Secular Lit + ornate court poetry
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Bhasa
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Dradira charu datta
Swapna Vasavdatta
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Shudraka
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Mrichcha katika : the little clay cart play filled with humour
Love Story of Brahman Charudatta with courtesan
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Kalidasa
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Abhijana Shakuntalam : Shakuntala courts Dushyant king of Hastinapur, he has to go back, gives her a ring, which is eaten by fish
Malavika Agnimitra : PushyaMitra Sunga falls in love for royal household female servant who later turns out to be royal lineage
Vikram Urvasi : Love Story of Puru king’s victory over angel Urvasi using Valour :
Raghuvamsa
KumaraSambhav
Ritusamhara : Ritambhra
Meghduta : O cloud please carry my love message to my partner on the other side of the mountain
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Vishakadutta
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Mudrarakshas : Drama by Vishakhadatta during Gupta Period, describing SEP + how Chanakya won agaist Chandragupta’s enemies
Devichandraguptam :
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Amarasimha
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Amarakos : Budhist lexicon
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Bharavi
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Kriti Sanon
Krit-arjuniya
: Arjun Vs Lord shiva : Bhavnai mein aake Arjun bhagwan se ladne aa gaya
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Dandin
Vishnusharma
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Das-kumar-charitra (story of Ten princes) #DusBahaneKarkeLeGayeDil
Kavyadarsha
Panchtantra
Mahabhashya : by Patanjali “great commentary” on Sanskrit grammar work of Ashtdyaya by Panini
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Puranas, Mahabharat, Ramayana all finished during Gupta Age
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Aryabhatta (500 AD)
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Maths & Astronomy (solar , lunar eclipse, 1st to tell Earth is round)
It explains scientifically the occurrence of solar and lunar eclipses. Aryabhatta was the first to declare that the earth was spherical inshape and that it rotates on its own axis
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Varamhira (600 AD)
Brahmagutpa
Bhaskaracharya
Mahaviracharya
Baudhayana
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Paanch Sidhhantika : 5 principles of astronomy ;
Brihad Samhita & Brihad Jataka : on astrology / horoscope\\
Mathematecian viz intro Zero to number system & -ve numbers
Siddhanta Shiromani
Ganit Sara Sangraha (Jain Maths)
SulvaSutra
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Medicine
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Vagbhatta : asht-ang-samgrah : eight branches of Medicine
—> India prod 2 famous scholar of Ayurveda :
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Adm
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Sandivigraha : foreign affairs
Kumaramatya Ayukta : for provincial adm officers, Provinces known as Bhukti, Provinvcial Governors : Uparika (Princes)
Bhukti Provinces Vishyas : District
Village : ‘G’ Gopu, Gramika
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Architecture
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Both Nagara & Dravidian style of Temple Arch , but no Gadhara influence
Monolithic pillar : bhittari Monolithic pillar : Skandgupta : how huns attacked
Iron : Delhi Iron Pillar of CG-2
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- Plays prod in India had 2 common features :
- all comidies no tragedies
- higher & lower classes speak diff lang : Sanskrit vs Prakrit ( Ashoka & Satavahanas used Prakrit )
- Period shows inc in Religious prod : Ramayana & Mahabharat completed by 4C AD : replete with myths, legends, & exaggerations
- Ramayana : (1) idealizes insti of family (younger obey elder bro, wife faithful under all circum) (2) Victory of righteousness over evil
- Mahabharata : (1) Fratricidal war : Kingship know no kinship
- Puranas : follow lines of epics, meant for education & edification of common people
- Shakuntalam + Bhagavadgita —> earliest works to be translated into European langs
- Aryabhat + Varamhira : rendezvous in Gupta period
- Romaka Siddhanta : book compiled in field of astronomy
- Bronze images of Buddha prod on large scale cos smiths had adv metal knowledge eg Iron pillar at Mehrauli (4C AD) : no rust
- Plays prod in India had 2 common features :
==>> Harshavardhana ( 606 AD ) :
- Harsha : called last great Hindu emperor of India ; followed tolerant religious plicy
- Made Kanauj his seat of power ; Pataliputra fell on bad days : it owed its power & imp to T&C & widespread use of money
—> However once trade declined, money became scarce & officers & soldiers paid th land grants —> Pataliputra lost imp - Harshacharita : by Banabhatta early history of Harsh’s reign
- Harsha governed empire on same lines of Guptas but his adm become feudal & decentralised
- Hsuan Tsang :
- A/c of chinese pilgrim who visited India in 7C & stayed in country for 15 years
- He informs us that Harsha’s revenues div into 4 parts (1) king’s expndt (2) scholars (3) officials & public servants (4) religious purposes
- Feudal practice of rewarding & paying officers with land grants seems to have begun under Harsha
—> explains why do not have many coins issued by him - He spent many years in Harsha’s court & travelled widely in India
- Under his inflence
Harsha became great supporter of Mahayana Buddhism & made generous endowments to it
- Xuan Zang :
- Chinese Buddhist Pilgrim & Scholar stayed (15 yrs) in Vijaywada to study Abhidhammapitakas (last of 3 Pitakas) constituting the Pali canon, the scriptures of Theravada Buddhism
- His travels = detailed accounts of life of people in 7 th century
- Chinese govt using his work to estd relationship b/w India & China viz 1400 yrs old
- Visited the viharas at Amravati & Nagarjunakoda
- Poorasaila (eastern hills) & Aparasaila (Western Hills) monastries mentioned by Xuan Zang are actually Moghalrajpuram & Akkanna Madonna caves located in heart of Vijaywada
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—> Chalukyas, Pallavas , Pandyas ( 600 AD – 800 AD)
- So from 300 BC to 300 AD we had Satvahanas in An.P & Cholas Pandya Chera in Sangam Age (viz declined after Kalabharas invaded)
- Satvahana succeeded by Vakataks in Maharashtra & Vidarbha & became channel for transmitting Brahminical ideas & Social insti to South —> follwed by Chalukyas of Badami
- E.Satvahanas came under Ikshvakus viz was replace by Pallavas
300 BC —> 600 AD 
- Chalukyas in Karnataka & Pallavas in N.TN & Pandyas in S.TN
- Chalukyas of Badami Vs Pallavas of Kancheepuram N.TN Vs Pandyas of Madurai S.TN
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Pallavas : 600 AD-800 AD
  
  
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Chalukyas of Badami / Aihole + Rashtrakutas : 600 AD-800 AD
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Imperial Cholas : 800AD – 1200 AD : Bc poore S.India pe rule kiya + Influence going to SE Asia
 
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Hoysala : 1200-1300 AD
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Vijayanagar Empire 1300-1700 AD —> Successors of Imperial Cholas & Hoysala
~ Architecture :
Bahmani Kingdom : Muslim Sultanate in South + adopted Hindus in adm in large number.
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MAURYANS :
- NBPW : Northern Black Polished Ware in 5 BC : very glossy shinging pottery type ; made of fine material & served as tableware for rich
- NBPW phase marked beginning of 2nd urbanization in India ; Harappan towns disappeared in 1900 BC, for 1500 years no towns were estd
- Maurya Dynasty = Chandragupta Maurya + Kautilya —> overthrew Nandas + liberated NW from Seleucus, Greek ruler
- Indika (Megasthenes , greek ambassador) + Arthashastra (Kautilya)
—> Mauryas had well-org sys of Adm + sound Financial system :- City adm by 6 committees * 5 members : Committees for sanitation, care of foreigners, reg of birth & death, weight & measures regulation
- Acc to Kautilya, C.Govt maintained 24 depts of St —> controlled S-E activites
- Most striking feature of Chandragupta’s adm = maintenance of Huge Army
- St controlled almost all eco activities : monopoly in mining, sale of liquor, manufac of arms —> vast resources to royal exchequer
- Virgin land opened to cultivation —> handsome income from revenue by newly settled peasants —> Taxes varied 1/4-1/6 of produce
- Tolls levied on commodities brought to town for sale
- Chandragupta —> Bindusara ( imp for continuing links with Greek princes ) —> Ashoka ( 273 BC – greatest of Maurya rulers )
- Ashokan history reconstructed on basis of 39 Inscriptions ( dhammalipi ) : Major, Minor, Separate Rock Edicts+ Major, Minor Pillar Edicts
- Inscription located on ancient highways : ( Prakrit lang, Brahmi script ) ; NW = ( Aramaic lang, Kharoshthi script ) ; Afghanistan = ( Aramaic , Greek)
- First king to speak directly to people th his inscriptions , carried royal orders
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Ashoka fought 1 major war with Kalinga —> deeply moved by massacre —> abandoned policy of Physcial occupation for Cultural conquest
- Ideology of Buddhism guided Ashoka’s St policy at home & abroad :
- Ashoka now appealed ideologically to Tribal people & frontier kingdoms
- Officials instructed to propagate among all sections “Obey king as father & repose confidence in him” ; Tribals asked to follow dhamma
- No longer treated foreign areas for military conquest ; Took steps for welfare of men & animals in foreign lands
- Sent ambassadors of peace to Greek kingdoms in W.Asia & Greece
- Wrong to think Kanlinga War caused Ashoka to become extreme pacifist :
- Didnt pursue policy of peace for sake of peace, but adopted practical policy of consolidating his empire
- Retained Kalinga after war + Threatened adversity for Tribals if dhamma not followed
- Class of officers (Rajukas) appointed to reward / punish people when necessary —> Ashoka’s policy of consolidating his empire successful
- Ashoka held 3rd Buddhist council & missionaries sent to S.India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar to convert people there
- Paternal Kingship : asked officials to tell subjects : king looked upon them as children
- Forbade killing certain birds & animals, prohibited slaughter of animals in royal kitchen ; banned social funcs of excess revelry
- Ashoka’s dharma was not narrow dharma & cannot be regarded as sectarian faith
- Ashoka’s teachings intended to maintain existing Social Order & Righteousness (dharma) on basis of tolerance :
- Show compassion towards relatives, animals
- Strengthen insti of family & existing social classes —> live & let live
- Ashoka’s place in History :
- Ashoka brought about Pol unification of country —> bound further by 1 dharma, 1 lang, 1 script (Brahmi) alth. respecting other non-Indian script
- Followed tolerant religious policy : not forcing Buddhist faith on his subjects + also gifts to non-buddhist sects
- Ashoka fired with zeal for missionary activity
- Ashoka imp in history for policy of peace, non-aggression & cultural conquest
- Had no model in early history for such a policy
- Asked his successors, Magadhan princes to adopt policy of peace sorely needed after period of aggressive wars lasting for 2 centuries
- Art & Culture :
- Mauryans intro masonry on wide scale : kyuki stone pillar kaise banega warna
- High tech skill achieved by Mauryan artisans in polishing Stone pillars (viz as shining as NBPW)
- Whole process ( transporting huge stone blocks from quarries + polish & embellish them when erected ) suggests great feat of engg
- Each pillar made of single piece of buff-coloured sandstone ; only their capitals ( sculptures in form of lions / bulls ) are joined to pillars on top
- Erection of polished pillars shows : (1) spread of tech knowledge of polishing th. out India (2) transport had spread far & wide
- Mauryan artisans also started practice of hewing out caves from rocks for monks to live in eg Barabar & Nagarjuna caves, Gaya
- In central phase of NBPW ( 300 BC ) Central Gangetic plains became centre of Terracotta art
- gen rep animals ( elephant) & women (mother goddesses)
- modelled by hand
- eg Stone statue of Yakshini in form of beatiful woman found in Didarganj noted for Maurya polish
- Causes of fall of Maurya Empire :
- Brahmanical Rxn :
- Inspite of tolerant policy, Ashoka issued his edicts in Prakrit, not in Sanskrit
- Anti-sacrifice attitude of Buddhism adopted by Ashoka adversely affected income of Brahmans
- He issued same civil & criminal law for all varnas ( against Dharmashastra)
- Financial crisis :
- due to (1) Enormous expndt on army + (2) payment to Bureaucracy
- Despite range of taxes imposed on people + large donations to Buddhist monks which left royal treasury empty
- Oppressive rule in provinces imp cause of break-up of empire
- complaints against misrule of wicked bureaucrats —> Ashoka intro rotation of officers
- New knowledge in outlying areas :
- Once knowledge of Material adv elements of culture spread to C.India as result of expansion of Magadhan empire lost spcl adv
- On basis of material culture, new kingdoms could be founded & deve
- Neglect of NW frontier :
- Necessary due to movt of tribes in C.Asia in 3 BC : Scythians
- Shih Huang Ti constructed Great Wall of China 220 BC to shield empire against Scythians
- When Scythians made push towards India, they forced Parthians, Shakas, Greeks to move towards sub-conti
- Brahmanical Rxn :
==>> C.Asian Contact & Impact :
- After Mauryas, in North : Native rulers s.a. Shungas, Kanvas, Satavahanas || NW = By ruling dynasties from C.Asia
- 1st to invade India : Greeks (failed to estd unified rule in India) : Indo-Greeks ( Milinda asked q & converted to Buddhism by Nagasena : Milinda Panho )
- Indo-Greek rule imp cos of large num of coins issued ; 1st to issue gold coins
- Greek rule intro Hellenistic Art ( best eg : Gandhara Art ) in NW by contact of Greek + non-Greek conquered people
- C.Asian empires to rule NW India after Greeks —> Sakas (Scythians) —> Parthians (Pahlavas) —> Kushans (Yuecchis/Tocharians) —> Sassanians
- Shakas destroyed Greek power in both Bactria & India ;
- Benefited from sea-born trade in Guj & issued numerous silver coins
- Most famous Shaka ruler Rudraman 1 : undertook repairs to improve Sudrashana lake in Kathiawar viz used for irrigation + issued 1st long inscription in chaste Sanskrit, earlier all in Prakrit
- Kushans : Most famour ruler Kanishka
- Started an era in AD 78 = Shaka era & is used by GOI
- Kanishka extended whole hearted patronage to Buddhism : held Buddhist council in Kashmir, where doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism finalised
- Kushan coins & inscriptions found : Toprak-Kala in Khorezm, S of Aral sea of Oxus = huge Kushan palance unearthed
- Sassanians :
- called region Hindu, not in religion sense but due to Indus people
- term Hindustan used for India in Mughal / modern times first used in 3 AD
- Sakas / Kushans added new ingredients to / immensely enriched Indian Culture :
- Settled in India for good & id themselves with its culture
- As they didnt have own script, written lang & culture —> adopted these from India + became integral part of Indian society
- They intro better cavalry & use of riding horse on large scale
- popularised use of reins & saddles as they were excellent horsemen
- also intro turban, tunic, trousers, & heavy long coat + caps helmets boots
- Kushans controlled Silk route ( China —> C.Asia & Afghan —> Iran —> W.Asia ) : source of income
- C.Asian conquerors imposed rule on numerous petty native princes —> deve of Feudatory org
- They became completely Indianized & this was largest assimilation into Indian society post-Mauryan times
- Mahayana Buddhism :
- Monks & nuns received cash donations from Traders & Artisans, accepted gold & silver, took to non-veg food & wore elaborate robes —> Laxity in discipline of day2day austere life of monks & nuns
- Hinayana / Lesser Vehicle : Puritan Buddhism —> worshipped certain things assoc with Buddha
- Mahayana / Greater Vehicle : replaced with Image worship
- Gandhara & Mathura school of Art :
- Foreign prince became enthu patrons of Indian A&C, displayed zeal of new converts
- Kushan empire brought tog masons & artisans trained in diff schools / countries
—> Gave rise to diff schools of Art = C.Asian, Gandhara, & Mathura - Indian craftsmen came in contact with C.Asian, Greeks, Romans esp in NW frontier
—> gave rise to new form of art viz images (& hair) of Buddha made in Graeco-Roman style - Gandhara Art : Blue-Grey Mica / Grey Sandstone Greek & Indian sculptors worked tog to create new form of art on NW frontier of India
( Realistic manner with detailed lines + Image worship of Buddha in Mahayana Buddhism ) - Influence of Gandhara Art spread to Mathura (indigenous art centre)
- (1) Prod btful images Buddha (2) Headless erect statue of Kanishka (3) stone images of Mahavir
- Its pre-Gupta sculpture & inscriptions ignore Krishna (his birthplace)
- flourished in early centuries of Christian era, made prods of red sandstone even found outside,
- Currently Mathura museum possesses largest collection of pieces of Kushan sculpture in India
- In AP, Nagarjunakoda & Amravati became great centres of Buddhist art
- Earliest panels dealing with Buddhism found at Bodh-Gaya, Sanchi, & Bharhut (2 BC)
- Gandhara = Patronised by Kanishka, Kushans, Yogi posture, Meditative State ; Hellenistic Graeko Roman, Realistic manner with detailed lines ???!!
- Mathura = FLESHY (muscular) + padmasan posture, Tight Dress + Halo & Clothes have design & drapery (unlike Sarnath ! ) + Smiling
- Amravati : Narrative art , patronised by Satvahanas
- Mathura VS Sarnath :
- Lang, Lit & Learning :
- Rulers officially recog 3 scripts (Greek, Kharoshthi, & Brahmi scripts) & 4 langs (Greek, Prakrit, Sanskrit-influenced Prakrit, pure Sanskrit )
- Kushan coins & inscriptions suggest coexisting of diff scripts & langs
- Although Mauryans & Satvahanas patronized Prakrit , C.Asian princes patronised Sanskrit lit —> inscriptions began in chaste Sanskrit
- Ashvaghosha wrote : (1) Buddhcharitra (Buddha biography) (2) Saundarananda : fine eg of Sanskrit kavya
- Indian theatre owed & entrered under Greek influence
- Bharata’s Natyasastra : imp work on rhetoric & dramaturgy ; marked entry of full-fledged theatre in India
- Best eg of secular lit : Kamasutra of Vatsyayana
- Indian astronomy & astrology benefitted from contact with Greeks ; many greek terms of movt of planets appear in Sanskrit texts eg horoscope
- Charakasamhita : medicine, botany, chemistry by Charaka & Sushruta—> contains names of numerous plants & herbs from which drugs prepared
==>> SATAVAHANAS :
- After Mauryas, in Deccan : Native rulers = Satavahanas ( = Andhra Pradesh, Deccan ) —> Ikshvakus
- Although Satvahanas were Patrilineal, however they carried their mother’s names
- Architecture of Satavahanas :
- Many chaityas (sacred shrines) & monasteries cut out of solid rock in NW Deccan / Maharashtra with skill & patience
- 2 most common religious constructions :
- Buddhist temple (chaitya) : large hall with num of columns ; e.g : Karle, W.Deccan, impressive specimen of massive rock architecture
- Monastery (vihara) : excavated near chaityas for residence of monks during rainy season e.g. at Nasik , carry inscriptions of Nahapana, Gautamiputra
- Rock-cut architecture found in Krishna-Godaveri region, famous for indep Buddhist structures in form of stupas
- Most famous Buddhist structures :
- Amaravati : stupa large round structure erected over some relic of Buddha ; sculptures depict various scenes from Buddha’s life
- Nagarjunakonda :
- prospered most under Ikshvakus
- possesses both Buddhist monuments & earliest Brahmanical brick temples
- Nagarjunakoda richest area in structures : tog with stupas & mahachaityas
- Prakrit text Gathasattasai / Gathasaptasati : attributed to Satvahana king Hala.
MAGADHA ( 500 BC ) : First empire in India
~ Only Kapilavastu & Vaishali (KV KendraVidyalaya) were Republics (Gana-sangha) in Mahajanapads, rest including Mauryan were monarchies
- Conditions for rise of Larger States :
- Inc use of Iron in E.UP & W.Bihar
- With iron weapons warrior class now played imp role
- New agro tools & implements —> peasants prod far more food than consumption
- Extra produce cd be collected by Princes to meet Miltary & Adm —> Growth of Army
- Surplus cd also be made available to Towns
- MATERIAL adv enabled people to remain on their land & expand at cost of neighbours
- Rise of Large states with towns as base of ops strengthened territorial idea
—> People owed stronger allegiance to Territory ( Janapadas / Mahajanapadas ) rather than Tribe
- Inc use of Iron in E.UP & W.Bihar
- Magadha Rulers : Bimbisara (544- ) —> Ajatashatru (492- ) —> Udayin (460-44 BC)
- Marriage relations with diff princely families lent enormous diplomatic prestige —> paved way for expansion of Magadha W & N
- Udayin built fort at confluence of Ganga & Son at Patna —> cos Patna lay at centre of Magadhan kingdom
- Shishunagas Dynasty succeeded Udayan —> ended 100 yr fight b/w Magadha & Avanti
- Nandas succeeded Shishunagas : Most powerful rulers of Magadha ( even Alexander dare not move east after conquering Punjab)
- Nandas extended Magadhan power by conquering Kalinga
- Nandas were fabulously rich & enormously powerful : 200K infantry , 60K Cavalry, 3-6K Elephantry
- Such huge army cd be maintained only th effective Taxation system
- Causes of Magadha’s success : Enterprising Rulers, Strategic Locations (ganga son), iron —> more agro & weapons —> cd sustain army + fertile ganga plains + Matrimonial alliances
- Enterprising & ambitious rulers : Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Mahapadma Nanda
- Magadha had geog adv in age of iron : richest iron deposits near Rajgir (earliest capital of Magadha )
- Iron ores also found at Ujjain, Avanti —> hence it proved to be Magadha’s most serious competitor in N
- Magadhan capitals : Rajgir & Pataliputra sit at very strategic pts
- Rajgir surrounded by grp of 5 hills —> impregnable
- Pataliputra sit at confluence of Ganges, Gandak & Son + Ghaghra joined Ganges not far away
—> Pataliputra = True Water Fort ; Pos invulnerable cos surrounded by rivers + comms by following courses of rivers
- Magadha lay at centre of mid-Gangetic plains —>
- Ganges providing means of transport & agro facilities
- Abundance of timber —> boats
- Envt factors conducive to Agro
- Princes of Magadha also benefited from rise of towns & use of metal money —> contri to T&C in NE India
- enabled Princes to levy tolls on sales & accumulate wealth to maintain army
- Magadha enjoyed spcl adv in military org —> 1st to use elephants on large scale in wars
- Unorthodox char of Magadhan society :
- underwent happy ethnic mixture with coming of Vedic people
- As recently Vedicized —> greater enthu for expansion of kingdoms
==>> IRANIAN & MACEDONIAN INVASION :
- NE India : Smaller principalities & republics gradually merged with Magadhan empire
- Iranian rulers took adv of Pol disunity in NW frontier : Darius , Xerxes
- NW India : Several small principalities ( Kambojas, Gandharas & Madras fought one another )
- Area didnt have powerful kingdom like Magadha to weld warring communities into 1 org kingdom
- As fertile & rich in nat resources —> attracted attention of neighbours
- Cd easily be penetrated th passes in Hindu Kush
- Result of Indo-Iranian contact :
- Iranian scribes brought form of writing = Kharoshthi script ( Ashokan inscription in NW 3 BC written in this script )
- Iranian coins also found in NW frontier region
- Iranian influence on Maurya sculpture clearly visible
- Monuments in Ashoka’s time (bell shaped capitals) owed to Iranian models
- Iranian influence may also be traced to Ashoka’s edicts
- Alexander’s Invasion :
- In 4 BC, Greeks & Iranians fought for supremacy of world ; Under leadership of Alex, Greeks eventually destroyed Iranian empire
- Alex conquered Asia Minor, Iraq, Iran and marched to India (attracted by great wealth )
- Alex found these principalities easy to conquer one by one || Ambhi, Taxila ruler + Battle of Hydapses (jhelum) Vs Porus on Karri Plains = might have effectively stopped Alex’s advance
- Ambhi readily submitted + Porus fought bravely but lost ( restored kingdom, made ally ) ; Alex proceeded as far as Beas
- His Greek soldiers refused to move east —> Hot climate + 10 years of conti campaign + Indian fighting qualities + Nandas outnumbering them
- On his return march Alex vanquished many small repubs ; remained in India for 1 & 1/2 yrs barely time to org his conquests
- Effects of Alex’s Invasion :
- 1st time Ancient Europe — contacts — Ancient S.Asia
- Estd of direct contact b/w India & Greece in various fields ; more trade & Greek merchants & craftsmen
- Estd of invasion multiplied Greek settlements
- Alex’s historians left valuable geog accounts + dated records estd Alex’s campaign & subsequent Indian Chronology + S-E conditions
- Destroying power of petty states in NW india , Alex’s invasion paved way for expansion of Maurya empire
==>> St struct / Varna sys during Buddha :
- NBPW : Northern Black Polished Ware in 5 BC : very glossy shinging pottery type ; made of fine material & served as tableware for rich
- NBPW phase marked beginning of 2nd urbanization in India ; Harappan towns disappeared in 1900 BC, for 1500 years no towns were estd
- Mention history of Coins in India :
- Vedic times : Barter + Mutual gift sys + sometimes cattle served purpose of currency
- Coins made of metal 1st appeared in Buddha : largely silver + few copper ; were Punch-marked with hills, trees, bulls, fish elephant
- Maurya times : cast coins & die-struck coins of diff metals used
- Earliest hoards of coins found in E.UP & Magadha + some in Taxila
- Pali text indicates plentiful use of money & coins
- New Startings in India :
- For 1st time, adv food-prod eco spread over mid-gangetic alluvial soils led to beginning of Urban economy in area
- Eco provided Subsistence to Farmers + Non-farmers
- Made collection of Taxes & maintenance of armies possible on long term basis
- Created conditions in viz large territorial states cd be formed & sustained
- By 300 BC, we notice full feldged Urbanization led to great inc in Population
- After end of Harappan Culture, writing began few centuries before Ashoka
- Writing led to compilation not only of laws & rituals + facilated bookeeping —> essential to trade, tax-collection & maintenance of large army
- We cannot think of Crafts, Commerce, Urbanisation in Mid-gangetic basin w/o strong Rural Base
- Non-agriculturists living in towns had to be fed by Agriculturists living in villages
- Pali text speak of 3 types of villages :
- Typical village inhab by various castes & communities
- Suburban villages ie craft villages
- Border villages : sit at outside limits of countryside which merged with surrounding forests
- Large scale paddy transplantation began in age of Buddha —> method revolutionalized rice prod
- Tribal assemblies virtually disintegrated in post-vedic times —> Tribes disintegrated into Varnas & lost their id
- Republican Expt : Many-Men rule Vs One-Man rule
- Repub sys of Govt existed Indus Basin / foothills of Himalayas ; In Republics real power lay in hands of Tribal Oligarchies
- Monarchy : King sole recipient of Rev from peasant ; Republic : claim advanced by every Tribal Oligarch (Raja) + own storehouse & adm
- Monarchy : maintained regular standing army, no arms allowed inside ; Republic : Each Raja free to maintain his own little army under own senapati fuelling competition
- Brahmanas exercised great influence in Monarchy + Had no place in early republics
- How Kingship of St orig ?
- Digha Nikaya, Buddhist text in Pali : in earliest stage human beings lived happily
- Gradually began to own Pvt Property + set up houses with wives —> led to quarrels over Property & Women
- To put end to quarrels, elected chief who would law & order & protect people
- In return for protection people promised to give chief part of paddy
- Origin of Indian legal & Judicial system :
- Formerly people governed by law viz did not recog any class distinction
- Dharmasutras had set out duties of each of 4 varnas —> Civil & Criminal law based on Varna division
- Higher Varna —> purer , higher level of moral conduct expected of Upper Varna by Civil & Criminal Law
- Crimes committed against Brahmans : severly punished ; against Shudra : lightly treated
JAINISM :
- Numerrous religious sects arose in 5-6 BC = 62 of them
- Both Mahavir & Buddha belonged to Kshatriya clan & disputed authority of Brahmanas
- Real cause of rise of new religions —> spread of new agro economy in NE India
- Why gradually killing of cattle stopped ?
- Agro eco based on iron ploughshare reqd use of bullocks & could not flourish w/o Animal Husbandry
- However Vedic practices of killing cattle indiscriminately in sacrifices hampered —> cattle wealth dec
- Non-Vedic tribal people living also killed cattle for food
- If new Agrarian Eco had to be stabilised —> killing to be halted
- Why did Jainism & Buddhism become popular ?
- J&B attach no imp to existing varna sys —> Vaishyas (Num. 3) sought religion that would improve their pos
- J&B preached non-violence —> put end to war b/w kingdoms —> good for trade & commerce
- Dharmasutra (brahmanical law-books) decried lending (& living on) money on interest —> t.f. Vaishyas lending money for T&C held in low esteem
- J&B propounded simple, puritan, ascetic living :
- Old fashioned people reacted strongly against growing “Pvt property culture” : new forms of property(coins, dwellings, clothes) created social ineq —> caused misery & suffering to ordinary people
- Common people yearned to return to primitive, ascetic lifestyle dispensing of new forms of property
- e.g. With Industrial age, many people yearned return to pre-machine age lifestyle ; similarly (ancient time, pre-iron age)
- Tirthankars = Religious teachers of Jainism [ 23 + Vardhaman Mahavir ( 30 —> 12 years wandering —> 42, attained omniscience—> preached for 30 ) ]
- Doctrines of Jainism :
- Do not (1) Violence (2) Lie (3) Steal (4) Hoard (5) Observe continence (brahmacharya)
- Jainism attached utmost imp to ahimsa / non-injury to living beings
- Recog existence of Gods but kept lower than Mahavir
- Did not condemn Varna sys like Buddhism did !!!
- Theory of Karma : Person born in upper / lower Varna as consequence of sins committed / virtues acqd in previous birth
- Jainism aims at attainment of freedom from worldly bonds :
- No ritual necessary for liberation but th. Tritatna in Jainism Right : (1) Knowledge (2) Faith (3) Action
- Jainism split into 2 sects : (1) Shvetambaras = donned white garments (2) Digambaras = remain naked
- Contributions of Jainism :
- Jainism made 1st serious attempt to mitigate evils of Varna order & ritualistic Vedic religion
- Discarded Sanskrit ( lang patronized by Brahmanas ) & adopted Prakrit ( lang of common people ) to preach their doctrines
- Jainism religious lit written in Ardhamagadhi ; Texts compiled at Valabhi, Guj
- Adoption of Prakrit helped growth of lang & lit ; many regional lang deve out of Prakrit = Shauraseni(Marathi)
- Composed earliest imp works in Apabhramsha + epics, Puranas, novels & drama
- Contri to growth of Kannada, in which they wrote extensively
- Orig Jains were not image worshippers, later began to worship Mahavir
- Beautiful & massive image stone sculptures for this purpose esp in Karnataka
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Jain Council
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1st Jain Council : 200 BC :Pataliputra
2nd Jain Council : 400 AD : Vallabhi : Final Compliation of Jain Lit = 12 Angas completed
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- As Jainism did not clearly differentiate itself from Brahmanical religion , it failed to attract the masses
==>> BUDDHISM :
- Buddha, contemporary of Mahavir 29 —> 35, attained enlightenment under Pipal tree
- Undertook long journeys & carried message far ; walk 20/30 km/day —> wandering, preaching, meditating for 40 yrs, resting only during rainy season
- Doctrines of Buddhism :
- Buddha was practical reformer + took note of realities ;
- Didnt get into fruitless controversies of meta-physical stuff like god, soul, karma but concerned himself to practical problems faced by people
- Said world was full of sorrows || Suffering due to DESIRES
- If desires conquered —> nirvana attained —> man free from cycle of Birth & Death
- Buddha reco 8-fold path for elimination of human misery :
- RIght (1) Observation (2) Determination (3) Speech (4) Action (5) Livelihood (6) Effort (7) Awareness (8) Concern
- Person sh avoid mechanisations of Priests + 8 fold path
- Person sh avoid excess of both luxury, austerity & prescribed Middle path
- Also laid down Code of Conduct for followers – Violence, Steal, Intoxicants, Lie, Sexual mis-conduct
- Features of Buddhism :
- Buddhism DIDNOT recog existence of God & Soul : Early Buddhism had no claptrap of phi discussions—> appealed to common people
- BUDDHA NEITHER ACCEPTS OR REJECTS GOD
- Buddhism also believed in KARMA but only in this life ,
- Buddhism DIDNOT recog existence of God & Soul : Early Buddhism had no claptrap of phi discussions—> appealed to common people
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- Won support of lower orders cos attacked Varna sys
- Liberal & Demo in comp to Brahmanical —> all people accepted
- Appealed to non-Vedic people as they were looked down upon by orthodox Brahmanas
- Monks had to take vow of (1) Continence (2) Poverty (3) Faith
- 3 Principal elements in Buddhism : (1) Buddha (2) Dhamma (3) Sangha
- 4 Noble Truths of Buddhism : World is full of sorrow , cos of desires, so we must conquer desires, Middle Path
- Due to Ashoka, Buddhism spread to C & W.Asia, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Tibet —> made it into World Religion
- Although Buddhism disappeared from land of birth, but continues to hold ground in S, SE & E.Asia
- Buddha personality & method of spreading helped :
- Sought to fight evil by goodness & hatred by love ; Refused to be provoked by slander & abuse
- Maintained his poise & calm under difficult circumstances ; Tackled his opponents with wit & presence of mind e.g. I donot accept this gift
- Causes of decline of Buddhism :
- Every religion is inspired by spirit of reform but eventually it succumbs to rituals & ceremonies it orig denounces
- Buddhism became victim to evils of Brahminism against viz initially fought
- To meet Buddhist challenge, Brahmanas reformed their religion —> (1) Stressed need to preserve cattle wealth (2) Assured women & shudras of entry to heaven
- Buddhism changed for worse :
- Gradually Buddhist monks cut off from mainstream of people’s lives
- Monks gave up Pali & took up Sanskrit, lang of intellectuals
- Started idol worship on large scale || Received numerous offerings & grants from devotees —> Enormous wealth of monasteries
- Buddhist monasteries came to be dominated by ease-loving people & became centres of corrupt practices
- Several instances of persecution occur in 6-7 BC by Pashyamitra Shunga, Huna king Mihirakula
- Monastery riches attracted Turkish invaders’s greed
- Significance & Influence of Buddhism :
- Buddhists showed keen awareness of problems faced by people
- Iron ploughshare-based Agro + Trade + Coins enabled traders & nobles to accumulate wealth —> created sharp S-E inequalities
- Buddhism t.f. advised people not to accumulate wealth ; acc to B, poverty breeds hatred, cruelty & violence
- Code of conduct for moks ~ revolt against money, pvt prop & luxurious living
- Buddhism sought to (1) Mitigate evils due to new Material Life in 5 BC (2) Consolidate changes in S-E life of people
- Debtors & slaves cd not be part —> helped Moneylenders & Slave-owners
- Buddhist Monks resembled Brahmans in ways :
- Did not participate directly in prod & lived off alms / gifts by society
- Emphasized virtues of carryng out family obligations , protecting pvt property & resp Pol auth
- Way of escape from worldly to Nirvana only to Monks ; no escape for followers —> come to terms with existing situation
- Buddhism made imp impact on society by keeping doors open to Women & Shudras
- Women who enterered Sangh were later allowed to become teachers of Dhamma eg Mahapajapati Gottami
- With emphasis on non-violence & animal life sanctity —> boosted cattle wealth of country
- Brahmanical insistence on sacredness of Cow & non-violence apparently derived from Buddhist teaching
- Buddhism created new awareness in field of intellect & culture
- taught people not to take things for granted but to argue & judge on merits —> rationalism replacing superstition
- Buddhist enriched Pali Lit and into 3 categ :
- (1) (2) Rules to be observed by Sangh (3)
- Buddhists created new lang Hybrid Sanskrit by blending Pali & Sanskrit
- Buddhist Monasteries deve as great centres of learning ; Universities = Nalanda & Vikramshila, Bihar & Valhi, Guj
- Buddhists showed keen awareness of problems faced by people
- Buddhism left mark on Ancient India Art :
- 1st human statue worshipped was of Buddha
- Panels protraying various events in Buddha’s life : (1) Bodh-Gaya, Bihar (2) Sanchi & Bharhut, MP
- For monks residence, rooms hewn out of rocks —> thus began Cave Architecture in (1) Barabar hills, Gaya (2) Nasik, Maharashtra
- Buddhist Art flourished in Krishna Delta in S & Mathura in N
- Buddhist Councils :
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1st Buddhist Council
Rajgir 400 BC
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Ajatashatru
(Magadha)
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Maintain purity of teaching of Buddha
Finalise & Preserve Sutta & Vinay Pittaka
Abhidhamma also included
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2nd Buddhist Council
Vaishali 380 BC
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Kalasoka
(Shishunaga)
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fighting among Sangh about Vinay Pitaka 10 points
Diff sects emerged in Buddhism for 1st time
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3rd
Pataliputra 250 BC
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Ashoka
(Maurya)
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Abhidhamma Pitaka estd , hence entire Triptiaka estd
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4th
Kashmir 72 AD
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Kanishka
(Kushan)
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Split into Mahayana Hinayana
Asvaghosh
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- Buddhism propogated by Buddha & Ashoka : Hinayana
- Compilation of Buddhist Texts in Pali known as Triptikas :
- Sutta Pitaka : Sayings/ Teachings of Buddha
- Vinay Pitakas : guidelines for Sangh /monks : Rules for Bhukkis & Bhukkinis
- Abhidhamma Pitaka : Philosophical extension of Sangh
- Boddhisatvas :
- Hinanyana : previous lives of Buddha
- Mahayana : (1) Everyone to try to get enlightenment to help others (2) Mythical people who were objects of devotion
- Boddhisatva central to Mahayana NOT hinanyana asindiv who is on his way to enlightenment , but delays his own salvation to help others achieve it too.
- Hinayana = Theravada Buddhism ; Orthodox , followed in SE Asia : Thaliand Myanmar, Vietnam
- Mahayana = Boddhisatva, followed in N Asia : China Korea Japan Mongolia
- Vajrayana = Newest Buddhism , in TIbet, follows Tantricism, Rituals for enlightenment
- Iron Pillar Inscriptions :
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Rummindei Pillar
Nasik & Nanaghad Inscription
Junagarh Rock Inscription
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Ashoka visits Lumbini in Nepal (Buddha’s birthplace)
Satvahana King : Gautamiputra Satakarni
Saka king Rudra-daman -1
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Mehrauli Pillar
Allahabad Pillar
(Prayag Prashasti)
Delhi Iron Pillar
Bhitari
Banskhera Inscription
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CG-1 ki military
Knowledge about SamudraGupta’s military prowess + his entire life
CG-2
Skandgupta : Huns ka attack
Harshavardhana
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Aihole Inscription
Uttiramerur inscription
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How Pulakeshin 2 won against Harshvardhana
Kudavolai System of Cholas
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Allahabad Pillar :
- Junagarh Rock Inscription : first ever inscription in chaste Sanskrit, Kanishka
- Edicts of Ashoka first deciphered by James Princep
- Buddhist monuments (stupas, Sarnath) surveyed by Alexander Cunnignham & wrote “Bhilsa Topes” curating history of Buddhism
- Diamond Triangle : Vajrayana Buddhism Heritage Network in Orissa : Ratnagiri, Udaygiri, Lalitgiri
- Mahayana Buddhism led to numerous ‘avadanas’ : life history & teachings of same ; e.g of books : Mahavastu & Divyavadana
==>> Aryan Culture ( 1500 BC ):
- Aryan Culture set out by Vedic, Iranian & Greek literary texts : (1) Rig Veda_1500 BC (2) Zend-Avesta_1400 BC (3) Homer’s Illiad & Odyssey_900 BC
- Genetic Marker : M-17 found in C.Asian & Delhi people —> Indo-Aryans migrated from C.Asia
- Horse & Cow + Iron Age:
- Regarded as indispensable trait of Aryan Culture
- Tiger & Rhino known to Harappan but unknown in Rig Veda as not found in cold non-tropical conditions of C.Asia
- Vedic poeple freq pray for Praja (children), Pasu (cattle) & horses
- Earliest domesticated horse found at considerable distance (6000 BC, Black Sea & S.Ural region ) from Indian Sub-continent (2000 BC Eurasia )
- War Chariot : Indo-Europeans widely used horse-drawn chariots
- Spoked Wheels :
- Pit Dwelling : lived in semi-subterranean houses in additions to surface ones ; Burial seems to have developed in imitation of pit-dwelling
- Birch : use of birch-wood = Aryan Features ; used to construct structures tog with pine & cedar ; subterranian dwellings covered with birch
- Cremation : deve as Aryan trait but not feature of mature Harappan
- Fire Cult : special trait of both Indo-Aryans & Indo-Iranians ; Fire worship imp in Veda & Avesta
- Animal Sacrifice : imp Aryan ritual + universal practice among pastoral tribal —> didn’t raise cattle for dairy ; early pastoral were great meat eaters
- Horse Sacrifice :
- Cult of Soma : id is debated ; may be ‘ephedra’ plant
- Svastika : symbol conceived as mark of Aryanism
- Language & Inscriptional Evidence : Indo-European languages divided into E (proto-Indo-Iranian) & W branches
==>> Age of Rig Veda :
- Indo-Iranians moved towards India from 2 areas of C.Asia :
- Whole C.Asia : Andronovo Culture —> manifests all imp parts of Aryan life —> t.f. regarded as proto-Indo-Iranian
- South C.Asia : Bactria-Margiana-Archaelogical Complex ( BMAC )
- We know abt Aryans in India from Rig Veda : earliest text of Indo-European languages ; written in Sanskrit , also includes many Munda & Dravidian
- Indo Aryans succeeded everywhere cos they had chariots drawn by horses & intro them for 1st time in W.Asia & India
- Indo-Aryans engaged in 2 types of conflicts : (1) with Pre-Aryans (2) with themselves : intra-tribal conflicts rocked Aryan communities
- Bharatvarsha : country named after Aryan ruling tribe Bharata
- Rig Vedic people had superior knowledge of Agro ; ploughshare mentioned in R.V.
- R.V. people were predominantly pastoral ; most wars fought over cows (most imp form of wealth) ; land not well-estd type of property yet
- Adm machinery of Aryans in R.V. period = Tribal Chiefdom
- Tribal Chief = Rajan didnt exercise unlimited power ; had to reckon with tribal org ; king fought wars & was protector of his tribe
- Tribal & kin-based assemblies s.a. Sabha, Samiti, Vidatha : exercised deliberative, military & religious funcs
- Sabha : less pol in char + had elders & nobles
- Samiti : dealt with Policy decisions & pol business + inc Common People
( totally OPPOSITE from GRAM SABHA of today )
- Vishvamitra composed “ Gayatri Mantra” —> eventually made monopoly of 3 higher varnas
- Titles of officials didnt indicate territorial adm
- Term ‘jana = tribe’ occurs at 275 places in Rig Veda but term ‘janapada = territory’ not said even once
- Indo-Aryan lang speakers were fair & indigeneous inhabitants dark in complexion —> colour proved earliest identifier for social order
- Factor contri most to social divisions —> conquest of indi-inhabitants by Indo-Aryans
- Rig Veda mentions Arya varna & Dasa varna
- Dasas / Dasyus conq by Aryans were treated as slaves & shudras
- Tribal chiefs & Priests acquired larger share of booty & naturally became wealthy at cost of their kinsmen —> creating social ineq in tribes
- Gradually Tribal society divided into 3 occupational grps : Warriors + Priests + Common people (same as Iran)
- 4th div viz Shudra appeared towards end of Rig Vedic period
- Unequal distri of spoils of war created social ineq —> aided rise of princes at cost of common tribal people
- However as eco was mainly pastoral & not food-prod , scope for collecting regular tributes from poeple very ltd
- Tribal elements in society were stronger & social div based on collections of taxes / accu of land did not exist
- Thus, society was still Tribal & egalitarian
- Rig Vedic Gods :
- Every people discover their religion in their surroundings
- Aryans found natural phenomena diff to explain —> t.f. personified these natural forces & looked at them as living beings & attributed human / animal attributes
- People in R.V. did not worship gods for spiritual upliftment / ending their miseries ; asked for praja, pashu
- Magical power of word was not considered imp as in later Vedic times
- Patriarchal Society , however Women given equal oppo to participate in major ceremonies, spiritual deve etc
- Child Marriage & Sati ABSENT
- Women poets : Apala, Visvaswara, Ghosa, Lopamundra
==>> Later Vedic Phase ( 1000 – 500 BC ) :
- Samhitas : collections of Vedic hyms / mantras
- 4 Vedas :
- Rig Veda : Oldest Vedic text on whose basis early Vedic age described’
- Sama Veda : modified collections of prayers of Rig Veda for recitation purpose
- Yajur Veda : contains hyms & rituals to accompany recitation —> S-P envt of time
- Atharva Veda : contains charms & spells to ward off evils & diseases —> beliefs & practices
- Vedic Samhitas followed by composition of series of texts : Brahmanas ( have ritualistic formulae & explain social/religious meaning of rituals )
- Painted Grey Ware (PGW) : sites inhabited by people using earthern bowls & dishes made of painted grey pottery
- Bharatas + Purus = Kurus (settled in Delhi / Kurukshetra)
- History of Kuru tribe imp for battle of Bharatas = theme of Mahabharata
- War b/w Kauravas & Pandavas (both of Kuru ) wiped out entire Kuru clan
- Kurus + Panchals , settled in Hastinapur, Meerut
- Excavations do not reflect description of Hastinapur in Mahabharata as it compiled in 4C (~ 1000 years later) when material life greatly advanced
- Iron, like horse, underwent long gestation period , took many years to learn art of separating iron ores from minerals
- Cleared the dense Gangetic Basin open for agro using iron axes
- Agro chief means of subsistence ; Kings didnt hesitate to do manual labour ; eventually ploughing assigned to lower & prohibited for upper varnas
- Arts & Crafts :
- Vedic people familiar with Copper from outset
- Copper 1st metal to be used by them ; copper mines of Khetri in Rajasthan
- Copper objects found in PGW sites : principally used for War & Hunting + ornaments
- Weaving confined to women but practised on large scale ; leather work, capentry, pottery made great progress
- Later Vedic 4 types of Pottery : (1) Black & Red ware (2) Black-slipped Ware (3) PGW (4) Red Ware
- PGW : Most distinctive Pottery of period —> consisted of bowls & dishes, used for rituals / eating probably by emerging upper orders
- On whole, Vedic texts & excavations indicate cultivation of specialised crafts
- Vedic people familiar with Copper from outset
- Later Vedic Phase reg great advance in material life of people :
- Pastoral & semi-nomadic living relegated to background —> Agro became primary source of livelihood —> life became settled & sedentary
- Equipped with diverse Arts & Crafts, Vedic people now settled permanently in upper Gangetic plains
- Peasants living in Plains prod enough to maintain themselves + spare marginal part of their produce for support of chiefs, princes & priests
- In later times, Rig Vedic tribal assemblies lost imp & royal power inc at their cost
- Formation of larger kingdoms inc power of chief / king ; Tribal authority tended to become territorial
- Earlier, election for king —> best in physical & attributes was elected, then Ruler perpetuated right to receive presents & enjoy privileges by making it hereditary
- King’s influence, power on people strengthened by Rituals :
- Rajasuya Sacrifice : confer supreme power on him
- Ashvamedha : unq control over area on which royal horse ran uninterrupted
- Vajapeya : Royal chariot race
- Aryanization promoted social differentiation —> It was Vedic Aryans who intro Varna System
- Rise of Brahmanas :
- Growing cult of sacrifices added enormously to power of Brahmanas
- (1) Conducted Rituals & Sacrifices for clients (2) Officiated at festivals assoc with agro operations (3) Prayed for success in war & in return king pledged not to harm them
- Vaishyas only tribute payers in later Vedic times
- Brahmanas & Kshatriyas living on tributes collected from Vaishyas
- Process of subjugating mass of tribesmen to pos of tribute payers long & protracted
- Rituals prescribed for making refractory elements submissive to prince & kinsmen
- All 3 varnas shared common feature : Upanyana ( sacred thread )
- 4th Varna & Women deprived of (1) Thread ceremony (2) Recitation of Gayatri Mantra
—> T.f. : Imposition of disabilities on Shudras & Women started towards end of Vedic period. 
- Ashramas (4 stages of life) by post-Vedic texts :
- Brahmachari : student
- Grihastha : house-holder
- Vanaprastha : hermit
- Sannyasi : ascetic
- Nishkas(Rig Vedic), Satmana gold Coins krishnala (silver coins Later Vedi) used in transaction : world’s oldest coins being stolen in Dhoom-2
- Shrenis / guilds / shanas : when Baniyas Traders org themselves into Trade union
- Ganasanghas : Republics, not monarchies of Mahajanpad
- 2 outstanding Rig Vedic Gods —> Indra & Agni lost imp to Prajapati
- Sacrifices became far more imp —> assumed public & domestic char
- Formulae & sacrifices were invented, adopted & elaborated by priests (Brahmanas) : claimed monopoly of priestly knowledge & expertise
- Upanishads : constitute essence of Hindu Philosophy
- Towards end of Vedic period strong rxn arose against priestly domination,cults & rituals
- Philosophical texts criticized rituals & stressed on right Belief & Knowledge
- Knowledge of self acquired + Relation of atma with Brahma properly understood —> Brahma emerged as supreme id
- Teachings promoted stability & integration
- Emphasis on changelessness, indestructibility & immortality of soul served cause of stability —> necessary to sustain rising State power of kshatriya
- Aranyakas : “forest books” : rhymes rituals mysticism sacrifice.
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